All living organisms need food because:
It provides carbohydrates, fats vitamins and minerals
It allows development of the organisms
It is needed to gain energy for everyday tasks
Main sources of food:
Plants – obtained from agriculture
Animals – obtained from animal husbandry
The efficiency of crops and livestock is required in India because:
The population of India is growing at a faster rate hence more amount of food is required to meet the rising demand.
The agricultural land is limited as compared to the growing population.
Efforts made to meet the increase in food demands
Green Revolution – The introduction of modern technology and equipment, usage of fertilizers and high-quality seeds
White Revolution – Increasing the growth of milk production by introducing dairy development programs
The introduction of these revolutions has led to an increased use of natural resources hence now sustainable methods of increasing crops and livestock efficiency are also required.
Improvement in Crop Yields
Different types of crops and their Nutritional Value
| Crop | Examples | Value |
Cereals | Wheat, rice, maize, millets, sorghum | Carbohydrates |
Pulses | Gram, black gram, green gram, pigeon pea, lentil | Proteins |
Oilseeds | Soybean, groundnut, sesame, castor, mustard, sunflower | Fats |
Vegetables, Spices and Fruits | Carrot, Cinnamon, orange, spinach | Minerals, vitamins and small amounts of Carbohydrates, fats and proteins |
Fodder crops | Berseem, oats, sudan grass | Food for Livestock |
Figure 1 Different types of Crops
Different crops grow in different Seasons because they require a particular climate temperature and photoperiod for their growth.
| Crop | Season | Example |
Kharif | Rainy (June to October) | Rice, maize, millets |
Rabi | Winter (November to April) | Soybean, pigeon pea, wheat |
Zaid | Summer (March to June) | Sugarcane, Watermelon, Cucumber |
Activities that lead to improvement in the crop yield:
Crop Variety Improvement
Crop Production Improvement
Crop Production Management
Crop Variety Improvement
In this approach, crops are selected on the basis of their characteristics. For instance, how well they can respond to fertilizers, can they produce high yield, how they resist diseases and so on.
Different methods of Crop Variety Improvement
1. Hybridisation - In this process, genetically different plants are crossbred.
They can be three types of crossing
Intervarietal - Between two varieties of a plant
Interspecific - Between two species belonging to same genus
Inter Generic - Between species of different genus
2.Introduction of Gene - A gene that can provide the desirable characteristics to a crop are introduced in this process. As a result, we obtain genetically modified crops.
Factors on which Crop Yield Generally Depends
The seeds used by the farmers - The seeds that are of similar variety are preferable.
Climate or Weather Conditions - Crops that can sustain diverse climatic conditions are preferable.
The duality of the Soil - Crops that can survive in a highly saline soil are preferable.
Availability of Water - Crops should be grown as per the availability of water in the region.
Why do we need to perform a crop variety improvement?
Increasing the yield of the crops
Improving the quality of the crop. Different crops may have different qualities. For Example, pulses have high protein quality, oilseeds have oil quality fruits and vegetables must have preserving quality.
Improving crop resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. Biotic stresses referred to the diseases, insects and nematodes while abiotic stresses referred to floods, drought, heat and cold weather conditions.
To shorten the maturity period of crops. This will allow farmers to grow a variety of crops in a year.
It would also lead to an increase in the yield of the crop as it reduces the chances of losses during the harvesting and simplifies the harvesting period.
Achieving the required agronomic characteristics of crops such as the right height, weight, lodging, resistance and high yield. In this way, they would consume the right nutrients and would produce a higher yield.
Crop Production Management
Different farmers can have small or large farms on which they can use different farming practices. The choice of farming practices would depend upon the availability of financial resources money. Hence, production practices can be divided into different levels
1. No cost Production
2. Low-cost Production
3. High-cost Production
Nutrition Management
16 Essential Nutrients that plants need –
Figure 2 - 16 Essential nutrients for plants
The nutrients that are required in large quantities are called Macronutrients. The nutrients that are required in small quantities by the plants are called Micronutrients.
Figure 3 Nutrients provided by air, water and soil
What happens if plants lack in these nutrients?
The yield may be affected as plants won't be able to reproduce
Plant growth can be affected plants can get diseases easily
How can we increase the yield by providing all nutrients to the plants?
Using Manure - Manure is prepared by using animal excreta and plant waste.
Functions or Features of Manure
Manure mainly contains organic matter which increases the fertility of the soil.
It also contains nutrients in small quantity which are then supplied to the soil on adding manure.
The soil structure also enhance is due to manure. It tends to hold more amount of water.
The organic matter avoids waterlogging and drainage in clayey soil.
Manure is purely organic hence using more manure is completely healthy for the plant as well as the environment.
Using manure is a way to recycle farm waste.
What is composting?
The process of recycling farm waste material by decomposing it is called Composting. The product formed on decomposition is called Compost. The composed has a high variety of nutrients and organic matter. The material used in the preparation of compost is animal excreta, sewage waste, vegetable waste and weeds.
Figure 4 Compost preparation
Classification of Manure
1. Compost and Vermicompost Manure
| Compost | Vermicompost |
A manure prepared from waste materials such as cow dung, sewage, vegetable wastes and domestic waste | A manure that is prepared by using Earthworms |
Takes around 3 to 6 months in formation | Takes around 1 to 2 months in formation |
The microbes decay the matter and manure is formed | Earth worms reduce the matter and compost is formed |
2.Green Manure – sometimes specific plants are grown and then ploughed again in the soil. These plants decay and turn into manure which enriches the soil, mainly with nitrogen and phosphorus. Plants that are used in the production of green manure are hemp, clover, peas grass mixtures.
Figure 5 Green Manure Crops
Using Fertilizers
Fertilizers are artificial materials that are produced on a commercial basis or natural substances that ensure nutrient benefits to the soil.
Organic fertilizers used by Farmers: Limestone, rock phosphate
Artificial fertilizers used by Farmers: Ammonium nitrate, potassium sulfate
Features of Fertilizers
Fertilizers provide important nutrients such as nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus to the soil.
They help in the proper growth of the plants.
They are responsible for high yields in the high-cost farming methods.
Figure 6 Using fertilizers in fields
Precautions with Fertilizers
Fertilizers should be applied in a proper amount as an excess of fertilizers is not good for the plants.
Proper precautions regarding the time of applying fertilizers should be taken.
Excess use of fertilizers can lead to water pollution as the extra fertilizers get washed away during irrigation.
Excess use of fertilizers can destroy the fertility of the soil as well.
How are fertilizers and manure different?
| Manure | Fertilizers |
Manure provides humus to the soil | Fertilizers do not provide humus to the soil |
Manures are less rich in nutrients | Fertilizers are highly rich in nutrients |
Long term usage of manure leads to increment in the fertility of the soil | Long term usage of fertilizers can lead to decrease in the soil fertility |
What is organic farming?
A farming practice which involves no use of artificial chemicals, fertilizers and pesticides and completely relies upon organic matter is known as organic farming. Organic farming uses healthy cropping systems such as crop rotation, intercropping and mixed cropping. Organic matter used in organic farming:
manure
bioagents such as blue-green algae
biofertilizers
Neem leaves and turmeric as biopesticides
Figure 7 Elements of Organic Farming
Irrigation
It is a process of application of water in controlled amounts at regular intervals to the crops. Irrigation methods are adopted at various places especially in areas of low rainfall to ensure the proper growth of crops.
Figure 8 Irrigation of fields
Why do droughts occur?
The scarcity of water or low rainfall often results in drought conditions. If farmers do not use any irrigation methods and only rely on rainfalls, draught poses a serious threat to the crops. Areas with light soils also tend to face drought-like conditions as soils cannot retain water
Irrigation Methods
Wells: two types of wells are used for irrigation:
|  |
Canals:A canal system is a network created to move water from one source of water such as a stream or reservoir. The main canal is divided into branches that spread by through the fields so that water can be distributed everywhere. |  |
River Lift System: A river lift system is used to draw water from the rivers directly for irrigational purposes. This system is successful in areas where the canal system is not successful. |  |
Tanks: farmers often use small storage reservoir that can store as well as supply water in the small fields. |  |
Rainwater Harvesting: Instead of just letting the rainwater flow away farmers often store it in the reservoir tank. This water can we for the used for irrigational purposes. |  |
Watershed Management: Small dams are built on the rivers and streams in order to increase the ground levels of the area. These check dams prevent water from flowing away and causing soil erosion. |  |
Cropping Patterns
Different cropping patterns are used by farmers in order to increase the crop yield:
Mixed Cropping
Intercropping
Crop Rotation
Mixed Cropping
It is a cropping pattern in which two or more crops are grown together in the same field.
The main aim of this cropping method is to ensure some healed even if one of the crops fails to grow properly.
The seeds of different crops are combined and planted together.
Same fertilizers are used for all the crops.
For Example, wheat and gram, wheat and mustard, groundnut and sunflower.
Figure 15 (a) Mixed Cropping in same row
Intercropping
It is a cropping method in which two or more crops are grown together in a field but in a specific pattern.
The seeds of these crops are not combined before plantation.
Both the crops used different kinds of fertilizers depending upon their own requirements.
The main objective of this method is to ensure the maximum productivity of the crops.
Since the crops have different nutrient requirements they would use maximum nutrients from the soil.
Diseases and pest would also not easily spread to all the crops.
For Example, soybean and maize, finger millets and cowpea.
Figure 15(b) Intercropping in specific rows
Crop Rotation
In this cropping method, different types of crops are chosen and irrigated on the same piece of land sequentially.
The rotation of crops depends upon the soil, climate and water retention of the soil.
How is crop rotation useful?
If farmers grow the same crop on the land for long-term the same nutrients keep on depleting from the soil which leads to a decrease in the soil fertility.
But when crops with different nutritional requirements are grown the soil nutrients get enriched and the fertility of the land is maintained.
Different crops are not susceptible to all kinds of pests and diseases.
Planting different crops on rotation can lead to a better yield.
Crop rotation allows a reduction in the number of fertilizers and pesticides on the fields.
Figure 16 Crop Rotation
Crop Production Management
Factors that can affect the production of crops are weeds, pests and diseases.
Weeds: Along with crops, sometimes some other plants also grow up which are not needed. These are called weeds. Weeds can affect the crop as they utilise the nutrients from the soil that are meant to be used by the crops.
Weed Control Methods:
Weedicides are sprayed on the fields that can kill them as they do not harm any crops.
Weeds can be uprooted manually by the farmers.
The crop is sown timely are not affected by weeds.
Using different methods of cropping suggest crop rotation and intercropping also reduce the chances of growing weeds.
Figure 17 Uprooting weeds manually
2.Pests: Several insects and pests can affect the crops in different ways:
They can cut the parts of the crops like fruits, leaves and stems.
They can get into the stems and roots of the plants.
They suck the cell sap of the plants and hence destroy them.
Pest Controlling Methods:
Pesticides and insecticides are sprayed on the fields to kill the germs.
Crops should be checked timely to ensure safety against pests.
Usage of effective cropping methods such as crop rotation ensures insect management in the fields.
Sometimes summer ploughing is also used to destroy the weeds and pests.
Figure 18 Pest Management
Diseases: Microorganisms such as fungi, bacteria and viruses often attack the crops and affect them. These pathogens can be transmitted to the crops via soil, water or air.
Disease Management Methods
Selecting the crop that suits the temperature and climatic conditions of the place.
Planting the seeds on right time and in an environment that favours their growth.
Using herbicides such as dicamba and glufosinate ammonium and fertilizers such as ammonium nitrate, potassium sulfate.
Using crop rotation method and mixed cropping.
Storage of Grains
Factors that lead to storage losses of crops are:
Biotic Factors: Like insects, fungi, bacteria, rodents and mites
Abiotic Factors: Like excessive temperature and moisture.
How to prevent storage loss?
Maintaining the storage houses properly
Cleaning the grains properly before storage
Drying the grains properly before storage in sunlight as well as in the shade
Animal Husbandry
In agriculture, animal husbandry is a special field that deals with rising of the livestock in a controlled, selective environment by providing them with the right care so that they can stay healthy and disease free.
There is a need to improve livestock production because the population of India is tremendously increasing. This means an increase in demand for eggs, milk and meat.
Animal husbandry includes the following:
1. Cattle Farming
Cattle are used for two reasons –
They provide milk
They work as draught labour in the fields
Milch Animals: Animals that provide milk are called Milch Animals.
Draught Animals: Animals that work in the fields for irrigation, carting and tiling are called Draught Animals.
Figure 19 Cattle Farming
Can we increase milk production in cattle?
Milk production can be enhanced by increasing the lactation period in the cattle.
Crossbreeding of foreign breeds and local breeds can provide cattle with qualities of increased lactation period and resistance to diseases.
Shelters of the cattle should be kept neat and clean in order to keep the cattle healthy.
The cattle should be kept clean and should be provided with a covered shelter that can protect them from harsh weathers.
The floor of the shelters to be kept a dry and clean
Food requirements of dairy animals:
Maintenance requirements: the food that is required to keep the animals healthy
Milk production requirements: the food that is needed in the lactation period
Animal feeds
Roughage – contains fibre
Concentrates – contains low fibre but high nutritional value
Feed Additives – includes food that contains micronutrients that can promote health and milk production
Protecting the Cattle from Diseases:
Diseases can lead to a reduction in the production of milk and even the death of cattle.
Mainly parasites can affect the health of the cattle. These parasites can be found in the animals or they may attack them externally.
The internal parasites generally damage the liver and stomach of these animals. For example, worms and flukes.
The external parasites cause skin diseases in cattle.
Sometimes bacteria and virus also called several diseases in the cattle.
A good way to prevent diseases is vaccination.
2. Poultry Farming
Poultry farming includes different kinds of domesticated birds. Different types of poultry are:
Chicken
Duck
Goose
Pigeon
Turkey
It is mainly done for:
getting eggs through layers
getting chicken meat through broilers
Examples of Poultry Birds:
Indigenous breeds: Aseel, Burosa
Foreign breeds: Leghorn, Black Minorca
Figure 20 Poultry Animals
Crossbreeding is a way to achieve this. Generally, foreign breeds of chicken are crossed with Indian breeds to achieve high quality. It thus has better traits such as:
Increase in a number of chicks.
They can tolerate high temperatures.
They do not require much maintenance
They can survive cheap diets
Egg and broiler production
Broiler Chicken
They need a diet with a high quality of Vitamins A and K, proteins and fats.
They need special care to maintain feathering and avoiding death.
Proper hygiene and temperature conditions should be provided to the broiler chicken.
Layers
They do not require such nutrient-rich diet.
They just need a controlled diet.
The layers require more space and lightning as compared to the broilers.
Disease Control methods should also be adopted against the diseases that are generally caused by bacteria, fungi and parasites in broilers and layers. Disinfectants can be sprayed regularly to avoid such diseases. Sometimes deficiency of nutrition can also need to diseases. Vaccination is a good way to protect the poultry fowl from diseases.
3. Fish Production
Fish can be obtained in two ways:
From Natural Resources - Capture Fishing
From Fish Farming - Culture Fishing
Marine Fisheries
Marine fishes are caught using fishnets and mechanical capturing techniques.
The main source of marine fishes is marine water or salt water.
Generally, large numbers of fishes can be captured at a time through mariculture.
For Example, tuna, Bombay duck, prawns
Inland Fisheries
Fishes found in lakes, ponds, lagoons and rivers are captured.
The main source of Inland fisheries is freshwater and brackish water.
The yield is not as high in these sources hence large numbers of fishes are captured through aquaculture.
For Example, silver carp, common carp
Figure 21 Inland Fisheries
Aquaculture: It is a method of farming aquatic animals under controlled circ*mstances. It is performed in both freshwater and saltwater bodies.
Mariculture: It is a branch of aquaculture hence a method of fish farming under control environment. Mariculture is often performed in the ocean, a particular section of the ocean or in the tanks that are filled with seawater only.
Composite fish culture
In a composite fish culture, fishes are grown along with rice crop in the paddy fields.
In this method, a combination of 5 - 6 local as well as foreign fishes is grown in a single pond.
Such species are selected because they have different food habits and would not compete for the food with each other.
Some of them are surface feeders; some are middle zone feeders while others are bottom feeders.
They would rather eat all the food in the pond.
As a result, the fish yield in the pond increases
For Example, Catlas (surface feeders), Rohu (middle feeders), Mrigal (bottom feeders), Common Carps (bottom feeders), Grass Craps (aquatic weed eaters) are often grown together in composite fish culture.
4. Beekeeping
Bee farming is performed in bee farms or apiaries. Many farmers perform beekeeping as a means of generating additional income because:
Honey is a widely used product
Bee farming is not very expensive
They also generate wax along with honey
Figure 22 Bee Farming
Bees used for commercial and honey production
Apis Cerana Indica - Indian bee
A. Dorsata - The rock bee
A. Florae - The little bee
A. Mellifera – Italian variety of bee
Figure 23 Honey Bee examples
Castes in Honey Bee
The honey bees build a nest which is called as a bee-hive. A hive contains almost 10,000 to 60,000 bees. The bees live together in a colony and divide themselves into 3 different castes.
Queen bee: the fertile, functional female of all is the queen bee. It is the supreme bee in the colony.
Drone bees: they are the smaller male bees of the colony. Their main task is to maintain the hive.
Worker bees: they are the smallest in size but the most active members of the hive. They perform different functions such as collecting pollens and nectar, constructing the comb, cleaning the cells of the hive.
Why Italian bees are popular in bee farming?
They produce large amounts of honey.
They do not sting much.
The breeding period in Italian bees is long.
Factors that determine the quality of honey
Along with the choice of selection of the bee species, the flowers decide the quality quantity and taste of the honey produced.
There should also be enough pasturage or availability of flowers to the bees so that they can collect enough nectar and pollen.
